Urinary Tract Infection

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In this Section

1. UTI in Men 
2. UTI in Women
3. UTI in Children
4. UTI in Elderly

 It is uncommon to have a urine infection if you are a man under the age of 50. The usual treatment is a course of a medicine called an antibiotic. Tests to assess the bladder, prostate, or kidneys are sometimes advised.

• Understanding the urinary tract
• What is a urine infection and what causes it?
• How common are urine infections
• Why do some men develop urine infections?
• What are the symptoms of a urine infection?
• Are any tests needed?
• What is the treatment for a urine infection in men?
• What is the outlook (prognosis)? 

There are two kidneys - one on each side of the upper part of the tummy (abdomen). They make urine which drains down tubes called ureters into the bladder. Urine is stored in the bladder. It is passed out through a tube (called the urethra) from time to time when we go to the toilet. 

In men the prostate gland sits just underneath the bladder. If the prostate is enlarged, this may affect how well the bladder drains.

Most urine infections are caused by germs (bacteria) which come from your own bowel. They cause no harm in your bowel but can cause infection if they get into other parts of your body. Some bacteria lie around your back passage (anus) after you pass a stool (faeces). These bacteria sometimes travel to the tube which passes urine from your bladder (the urethra) and into your bladder. Some bacteria thrive in urine and multiply quickly to cause infection.

A urine infection is often called a urinary tract infection (UTI) by doctors. When the infection is just in the bladder and urethra, this is called a lower UTI. If it travels up to affect one or both kidneys as well then it is called an upper UTI. This can be more serious than lower UTIs, as the kidneys can become damaged by the infection.

This leaflet only deals with urine infections in men. It does not deal with sexually transmitted infections such as chlamydia which can affect the urethra and cause similar symptoms. 

Urine infections are rare in men aged under 50. They become more common in older men. Urine infection is much more common in women.

In some cases an underlying problem can increase the risk of developing a urine infection. These include the following:

• An enlarged prostate may stop the bladder from emptying properly. Some urine may then pool in the bladder. Germs (bacteria) are more likely to multiply and cause infection in a stagnant pool of urine.  
• Bladder or kidney problems may lead to infections being more likely. For example, kidney stones or conditions that cause urine to pool and not drain properly.
• Having a urinary catheter : A catheter is a thin, flexible, hollow tube, passing from the bladder to the outside. This may be used to help you pass urine in a number of different circumstances. Having a catheter is the most common cause of urine infections which develop whilst in hospital.
• A poor immune system increases the risk of having any infection, including urine infections. For example, if you have AIDS or are taking chemotherapy.

In other cases the infection occurs for no apparent reason. There is no problem with the bladder, kidney, prostate, or defence (immune) system that can be identified.

• Infection in the bladder (cystitis) usually causes pain when you pass urine, and you pass urine more frequently. You may also have pain in your lower tummy (abdomen). Your urine may become cloudy, bloody or smelly. You may have a high temperature (fever).
• Infection in the kidneys may cause pain in a loin (the side of the abdomen over your kidney) and a high temperature (fever). It may cause you to feel sick or be sick (vomit). You may feel generally unwell.

In some elderly men, the only symptoms may be a recent onset of confusion or just feeling generally unwell, even without any actual urinary symptoms

A urine sample can confirm the diagnosis and identify the germ (bacterium) causing the infection. Further tests are not usually necessary if you are otherwise well and have a one-off infection. However, your doctor may advise tests of your kidney, prostate, or bladder if an underlying problem is suspected.

An underlying problem is more likely if the infection does not clear with an antibiotic medicine, or if you have:

• Symptoms that suggest a kidney is infected (and not just the bladder).
• Recurring urine infections. For example, two or more in a three-month period.
• Had problems with your kidney in the past, such as kidney stones or a damaged kidney.
• Symptoms that suggest an obstruction to the flow of urine.
• Blood-stained urine which persists after treatment with antibiotics.

Tests may include:

•  An examination of your prostate gland by examination of your back passage (rectum).
• A general blood test or a specific blood test to check on your prostate, called Prostate Specific Antigen, or PSA.
• A scan of your kidneys or bladder such as an ultrasound scan.
• An X-ray to look for kidney stones.
• A look inside your bladder with a special telescope (cystoscopy).
• Tests to see how well your bladder is working, called urodynamic tests.

• A course of an antibiotic medicine will usually clear the infection quickly. This is usually for seven days. You should see a doctor if your symptoms are not gone, or nearly gone, after a few days.
• Analgesics and antipyretics will usually ease any pain, discomfort, or high temperature (fever).
• Have plenty to drink to help prevent a lack of fluid in the body (dehydration) if you have a fever and feel unwell.

The vast majority of men improve within a few days of starting treatment. See a doctor if you do not quickly improve. If your symptoms do not improve despite taking an antibiotic medicine then you may need an alternative antibiotic. This is because some germs (bacteria) are resistant to some types of antibiotics. This can be identified from tests done on your urine sample.

Occasionally the infection may spread and cause you to be more unwell. Infection in the bladder (cystitis) may spread to the kidney (pyelonephritis). Infection may also spread to involve the prostate gland, causing infection of the prostate gland (prostatitis). Occasionally it may lead to a swelling caused by a collection of pus (abscess) in the prostate gland.

A urine infection in the bladder (cystitis) is common in women. A short course of medicines called antibiotics is the usual treatment.

IN THIS ARTICLE

• Cystitis symptoms
• What is cystitis?
• Cystitis causes
• Can I be sure it is cystitis?
• Cystitis treatment
• How can I prevent cystitis?
• What is the outlook (prognosis)?

Cystitis means inflammation of the bladder. It is usually caused by an infection in the urine which responds well to a short course of medicines called antibiotics. Occasionally it may improve without the need for antibiotics. Cystitis clears quickly without complications in most people.

Cystitis can cause various symptoms. The main ones are:

• Needing to pass urine urgently:
• The urgent feeling to pass urine can be very severe but may not disappear after having passed urine. This is called strangury.
• Needing to pass urine frequently:
• Often only small amounts may be passed.
• Burning or stinging feeling when you urinate:
• Women sometimes describe this as feeling like they are 'peeing broken glass'.

Other symptoms may be:

• Blood in the urine.
• Discomfort in your lower tummy (abdomen).
• Feeling generally unwell and tired.

Cystitis is an inflammation of the bladder. A urine infection is the most common cause. As well as the typical symptoms described above, your urine may also become cloudy and may become smelly. (Without the typical symptoms of cystitis, cloudy or smelly urine isn't usually abnormal.)

Most urine infections are due to germs (bacteria) that come from your own bowel. Some bacteria live in and around your back passage (anus) without causing any harm. However these bacteria can sometimes get into the tube that you pass urine out of (called the urethra). The urethra leads up to the bladder, so the bacteria can sometimes get as far as the bladder. Once in the bladder some bacteria thrive in urine and multiply quickly to cause infection.

Note: painful bladder syndrome (also called interstitial cystitis) causes similar symptoms but is not caused by infection.  Other causes of cystitis include radiotherapy and certain chemicals. This leaflet will only discuss cystitis caused by an infection.

Women are much more likely than men to have cystitis, as the tube that passes out urine from a woman's bladder (the urethra) is shorter and opens much nearer to the back passage (anus).

About half of women have at least one bout of cystitis in their lives. One in three women will have had cystitis by the age of 24. About 4 out of 100 pregnant women develop cystitis.

Apart from being female, other things that make cystitis more likely include:

• Being pregnant.
• Being sexually active.
• Using spermicide with contraception.
• Having had the menopause. The changes in the tissues of the vagina and urethra after menopause make it harder for them to defend against infection.
• Having diabetes mellitus.
• Having a catheter in your bladder.
• Having abnormalities in your kidneys, bladder or urinary system.
• Having an immune system which is not working well (for example, due to AIDS or medication which suppresses the immune system).

What are the symptoms of cystitis?

Some conditions cause symptoms that may be mistaken for cystitis - for example, vaginal thrush or genital herpes. Also soaps, deodorants, bubble baths, etc, may irritate your genital area and cause mild pain when you pass urine.

Your doctor or nurse may do a simple dipstick test on a urine sample to check for cystitis. This can detect changes in the urine that may indicate an infection. It is fairly reliable and usually no further test is needed. If the infection does not improve with treatment, or improves but then returns quickly, you will be asked to do a midstream specimen of urine (MSU). This is then sent to the laboratory to confirm the diagnosis and to find out which germ (bacterium) is causing the infection.

Treatment options include the following:

• Antibiotic medication. A three-day course of an antibiotic (either trimethoprim or nitrofurantoin) is a common treatment for most women. Symptoms usually improve within a day or so after starting treatment. Sometimes you may be offered a delayed prescription for antibiotics if your symptoms are mild. You then need only pick up the prescription if your symptoms worsen, or do not improve, over the following few days.
• Not taking any treatment may be an option if symptoms are very mild (and if you are not pregnant or if you have no other illnesses). Your immune system can often clear the infection. Without antibiotics, cystitis (particularly mild cases) may go away on its own in a few days. However, symptoms can sometimes last for a week or so if you do not take antibiotics.
• Paracetamol or ibuprofen. These ease pain or discomfort.

Being told to have lots to drink is traditional advice to 'flush out the bladder'. However, there is no proof that this is helpful. Some doctors feel that it does not help and drinking lots may just cause more (painful) toilet trips. Therefore, it is difficult to give confident advice on whether to drink lots, or just to drink normally.

There is no good evidence that drinking cranberry juice either treats or prevents cystitis. Nor is there any strong evidence that taking products that reduce the acidity of your urine (such as potassium citrate or bicarbonate) improve the symptoms of cystitis. These sorts of products are sometimes sold as a treatment for cystitis.

If your symptoms worsen or you develop a fever or pain in your loin you should see your doctor. You should also see your doctor if your symptoms do not improve by the end of taking the course of antibiotics or if they come back within two weeks of the course finishing.

Note: if you are pregnant or have certain other medical conditions, you should always be treated with antibiotics to prevent possible complications.

How do you avoid cystitis?

Simple steps that may help to prevent cystitis include wiping your bottom from front to back after going to the toilet, passing urine after sex and making sure you don't get dehydrated.

The vast majority of women improve within a few days of developing cystitis. However, if your symptoms still do not improve after you have been taking antibiotics then you may need an alternative antibiotic. Some germs (bacteria) causing cystitis can be resistant to some types of antibiotic. Also if blood has been found in your urine you may be asked to provide another sample for testing.

If you develop recurrent bouts of cystitis you should see your doctor. 

Urine infection in children is common. It can cause various symptoms. A course of medicines called antibiotics will usually clear the infection quickly. In most cases, a child with a urine infection will make a full recovery. Sometimes tests to check on the kidneys and/or bladder are advised after the infection has cleared. Your doctor will advise if your child needs these tests. This depends on your child's age, the severity of the infection and whether it has happened before.

• What is a urine infection?
• Does anything increase the risk of developing a urine infection?
• What are the symptoms of a urine infection?
• How is a urine infection confirmed?
• What is the treatment of a urine infection in children?
• What is the outlook (prognosis)?
• When are further tests advised?
• General tips following a urine infection in a child

A urine infection is caused by germs (bacteria) that get into the urine. Most urine infections are due to bacteria that normally live in the bowel. They cause no harm in the bowel but can cause infection if they get into other parts of the body. Some bacteria lie around the back passage (anus) after a stool (faeces) has been passed. These bacteria can sometimes travel to the urethra (the tube that passes urine from the bladder) and into the bladder. Some bacteria thrive in urine and multiply quickly to cause infection.

The infection is commonly just in the bladder (when it is called cystitis) but may travel higher up to affect one or both kidneys as well.

Around 1 in 30 boys and 1 in 10 girls have at least one urine infection by the time they are 16 years old.

Some terms used by doctors include:

• Urinary tract infection (UTI) - which means a urine infection somewhere in the urinary tract.
• Cystitis - which means infection or inflammation in the bladder.
• Lower UTI - which means the infection is confined to the bladder and urethra. This is much the same as cystitis.
• Upper UTI - the infection affects a kidney and/or a tube called a ureter.
• Pyelonephritis - a term that means infection of a kidney.
• Loin pain - which is a pain in one side of the back, often coming from a kidney.

No. In most urine infections in children, there is no underlying problem to account for it.

Retaining some urine in the urinary tract may play a part. When we pass urine, the bladder should empty completely. This helps to flush out any germs (bacteria) that may have got into the bladder since the last toilet trip. However, some abnormalities or problems that affect the urinary tract can make some urine stay (be retained) in the bladder, kidney or urine tubes. This may allow any bacteria to multiply, as urine is a good food for some bacteria. This increases the chance of developing a urine infection. The following are the most common causes of retaining urine.

Constipation - if large hard stools (faeces) collect in the back passage (anus) they can press on the bladder. The bladder may then not empty fully when the child passes urine. Treating severe constipation sometimes prevents recurring urine infections.

Dysfunctional elimination syndrome - this is a condition where a child repeatedly holds on to urine and/or stools. That is, they regularly do not fully empty their bladder or bowel when they go to the toilet. There is no physical cause for this (that is, no abnormality in the urinary tract or rectum). The reason why this occurs is often unclear. Stress or emotional problems may be the underlying cause.

An abnormality of the urinary tract - structural abnormalities can cause retention of urine. The most common condition is called vesicoureteric reflux. This is a problem at the junction where the ureter tube enters the bladder. In this condition, urine is passed back (refluxes) up the ureter from the bladder from time to time. This should not happen. The urine should only flow downwards out of the bladder when going to the toilet. This condition makes urine infections more likely. Infected urine that refluxes from the bladder back up to the kidneys may also cause kidney infection, scarring and damage. In some cases this leads to severe kidney damage if urine infections recur frequently. Other rare problems that may be found include kidney stones, or rare abnormalities of parts of the urinary tract.

Nerve (neurological) or spinal cord disorders - anything that affects the bladder emptying or sensation. These are rare in children.

Other conditions which increase the risk of a urine infection include having diabetes and having a poorly functioning immune system. For example, children having chemotherapymay have a less effective immune system.

It can be difficult to tell if a child has a urine infection. If they are very young they may not be able to let you know where the problem is. If they are still wearing nappies, you may not notice them passing urine more often.

Young children, toddlers and babies can have various symptoms which may include one or more of:

• High temperature (fever).
• Being sick (vomiting) and/or diarrhoea.
• Drowsiness.
• Crying, going off feeds and generally seeming unwell.
• Appearing to be in pain.
• Blood in the urine (uncommon).
• Yellowing of the skin (jaundice).
• Cloudy or smelly urine.
• Older children may say that they have pain when they pass urine, and pass urine frequently. If a kidney becomes infected they may also have shivers and complain of tummy (abdominal) pain, back pain, or a pain in a side of the abdomen. Bedwetting in a previously dry child is sometimes due to a urine infection. Just being generally unwell may be due to a urine infection.

Note: a urine infection should be suspected in any child who is unwell or has a fever with no other clear cause. This is why a urine test is commonly done when a child is unwell. It is important to diagnose and treat a urine infection promptly.

A sample of urine is needed to confirm the diagnosis. Urine normally has no germs (bacteria) present, or only very few. A urine infection can be confirmed by urine tests which detect bacteria and/or the effects of infection in the urine.

Ideally, the sample of urine should not come into contact with skin or other materials which may contaminate it with other bacteria. Adults and older children can do this by a midstream collection of urine. This is not easy to do in young children and babies. The following are ways to obtain a sample of urine that is not contaminated:

Young children - the usual way is to catch some urine in the specimen bottle whilst they are passing urine. Just be ready with the open bottle as the child passes urine. (Be careful not to touch the open rim of the bottle with your fingers, as this may contaminate the specimen with bacteria from your fingers.)

Babies - one method is to place a specially designed absorbent pad in a nappy (supplied by a doctor). Urine is sucked into a syringe from the wet pad. Another method is to use a plastic bag that sticks on to the skin and collects urine. If no pad or plastic bag is available, the following might work. Take the nappy off about one hour after a feed. Tap gently with a finger (about once a second) just above the bone at the lower part of the tummy above the genitals (the pubic bone). Have ready the open bottle. Quite often, within about five minutes, the baby will pass urine. Try to catch some in the bottle.

If you collect a sample at home, take it to the doctor or clinic as soon as possible after collection. If there is a delay, store the urine sample in the fridge.

If you are unable to obtain a sample by the methods above, there are other ways to obtain one. These ways are a little more uncomfortable and are usually done in hospital. A doctor could put a thin, flexible, hollow tube called a catheter into the bladder to get the sample. The tube is then taken out straightaway. Alternatively a doctor can also use a sterile needle to take a sample directly from the bladder, by going through the skin just above the pubic bone. A local anaesthetic is used to avoid hurting the child.

A course of an antibiotic medicine will usually clear the infection within a few days. Depending on where the infection is and how severe it is, the antibiotics may be a three-day course up to a ten-day course. Sometimes, for very young babies or for severe infections, antibiotics are given directly into a vein through a drip.

Give lots to drink to prevent a lack of fluid in the body (dehydration). Also, give paracetamol if needed to ease any pains and high temperature (fever).

In most cases, this is excellent. Once a urine infection is diagnosed and treated, the infection usually clears away and the child recovers fully. In many cases, a urine infection is a one-off event. However, some children have more than one urine infection and some develop several throughout their childhood (recurring UTIs).

In some cases, an infection can be severe, particularly if a kidney becomes badly infected. This can sometimes be serious, even life-threatening in a minority of cases if treatment is delayed. A bad infection, or repeated infections, of a kidney may also do some permanent damage to the kidney. This could lead to kidney problems or high blood pressure later in life. 

Urine infection is common. In most cases, a child with a urine infection will make a full recovery.

Tests are advised in some cases to check on the kidneys and/or bladder. Your doctor will advise if your child needs further tests. It depends on factors such as the child's age, the severity of the infection and whether it has happened before. For example:

• Children over the age of 6 months who have a one-off urine infection which promptly clears with treatment do not usually need any further tests.
• Children with a severe infection, or with an infection with unusual features, may need tests.
• Children who have two or more infections of any severity may need tests.

The tests that are advised may vary depending on local policies and the child's age. There are various tests (scans, etc) which may be used. These are to check on the structure and function of the urinary tract (the kidneys, the bladder and the tubes which carry urine).

The results of the tests are normal in most cases. However, in some cases, an abnormality such as vesicoureteric reflux may be detected (described above). Depending on whether an abnormality is detected, and how severe it is, a kidney specialist may advise a regular daily low dose of an antibiotic medicine. This treatment is advised in some cases to prevent further urine infections, with the aim of preventing damage to the kidneys.

Note: the general rules as to which children should have further tests following a urine infection have been laid out in guidelines from the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). The section above tries to summarise this guideline. This may differ in other countries.

To help to prevent a further infection in the future:

• Try not to let your child become constipated. A good diet will help here. Ask your doctor for advice on this if you are not sure what foods are best to prevent constipation.
• Make sure your child has plenty to drink each day.
• Make sure your child is clean after going to the toilet and teach him/her how to do this when he/she is old enough to go to the toilet alone.
• Make sure your child can go to the toilet promptly when he/she needs to; encourage him/her to do so. You may need to make a nursery/school teacher aware that your child has had a urine infection.

Also, see a doctor promptly if you suspect your child has another urine infection. If this is confirmed, remind your doctor that your child has had a previous urine infection. Further tests may be advised.

What is a urine infection and what causes it?

Most urine infections are caused by germs (bacteria) that come from your own bowel. They cause no harm in your bowel but can cause infection if they get into other parts of your body. Some bacteria lie around your back passage (anus) after you pass a stool. These bacteria sometimes travel up the tube called the urethra and into your bladder. Some bacteria thrive in urine and multiply quickly to cause infection.

A urine infection is often called a urinary tract infection (UTI) by healthcare professionals. When the infection is just in the bladder and urethra, this is called a lower UTI. If it travels up to affect one or both kidneys as well then it is called an upper UTI. This can be more serious than lower UTIs, as the kidneys can be damaged by the infection.

In many cases the infection occurs for no apparent reason. There is no problem with the bladder, kidney, prostate, or defence (immune) system that can be identified. In other cases, an underlying problem can increase the risk of developing a urine infection.

In older women

• After the menopause the lining of tissues around your genital area may become more fragile. This is called atrophic vaginitis. It is associated with having more urine infections.
• A prolapse of the womb (uterus) or vagina can also increase your risk of infection.

In older men

An enlarged prostate may stop the bladder from emptying properly. Some urine may then pool in the bladder. Germs (bacteria) are more likely to multiply and cause infection in a stagnant pool of urine. 

In both

• Bladder or kidney problems may lead to infections being more likely. For example, kidney stones or conditions that cause urine to pool and not drain properly.
• Having a thin, flexible, hollow tube (called a catheter) in place to drain urine.
• An underlying health condition may also be responsible. A poor immune system increases the risk of having any infection, including urine infections. For example, if you are having chemotherapy to treat cancer. Diabetes can also increase your risk of having urine infections.
• Being constipated. If your lower gut (bowel) is full and swollen, it may press on the bladder. This may stop it emptying properly, making you more prone to urine infection.

• Infection in the bladder (cystitis) usually causes pain when you pass urine. You pass urine more frequently. You may also have pain in your lower tummy (abdomen). Your urine may become cloudy, bloody or offensive-smelling. You may have a high temperature (fever).
• Infection in the kidneys may cause you to feel generally unwell. There may be a pain in your back. This is usually around the side of the back (the loin), where each kidney is located. You may have a high fever. You may feel sick, or be sick (vomit).

In some older people the only symptoms of the urine infection may be becoming confused or just feeling generally unwell.

The confusion is caused by a combination of factors such as having a fever and having a lack of fluid in the body (dehydration). The confusion should pass when the infection has been treated.

Urine infections are much more common in women. This is because in women the urethra - the tube from the bladder that passes out urine - is shorter. Also it opens nearer the back passage (anus) than in men. Half of all women will have a urine infection that needs treating in their lifetime.

Urine infections are less common in men. They are very uncommon in young and middle-aged men. They are more common in older men. They are more likely to occur in men who have to use a catheter. A catheter is a thin, flexible, hollow tube used to drain urine. Older men are more likely to need a catheter because of prostate problems, which become more common with age.

Urine infections tend to become more common as you get older. 

In some cases the diagnosis may be obvious and no tests are needed. A test on a urine sample can confirm the diagnosis and identify what germ (bacterium) is causing the infection. Sometimes a dipstick test can provide enough information immediately. In other cases the urine sample is sent to a laboratory for further examination under a microscope. This result takes several days.

Further tests are not usually necessary if you are otherwise well and have a one-off infection. However, your doctor may advise tests of your kidney or bladder if an underlying problem is suspected. If you are a man, you may be advised to have some tests for your prostate gland.

An underlying problem is more likely if the infection does not clear with antibiotic medication, or if you have:

• Symptoms that suggest a kidney is infected (and not just the bladder).
• Recurring urine infections (for example, two or more episodes in a three-month period).
• Had problems with your kidney in the past, such as kidney stones or a damaged kidney.
• Symptoms that suggest a blockage (an obstruction) to the flow of urine.

Relevant tests may include:

• A blood test. This might be a general blood test, or a specific test for the prostate (called the prostate specific antigen, or PSA, test) if you are male.
• A scan of your kidneys or bladder, such as an ultrasound scan.
• Tests to see how well your bladder is functioning, called urodynamic tests.
• A look inside your bladder with a special telescope (cystoscopy).

• A course of an antibiotic medicine will usually clear the infection quickly. You should see a doctor if your symptoms are not gone, or nearly gone, after a few days.
• Paracetamol or ibuprofen will usually ease any pain, discomfort, or high temperature (fever).
• An underlying cause such as an enlarged prostate or constipation may be found and need treatment.

Note: if you have an infection of your bladder (cystitis) then having plenty to drink is traditional advice to flush out the bladder. However, there is no proof that this is helpful when you have cystitis. Some doctors feel that it does not help and that drinking lots may just cause more toilet trips, giving you more unnecessary pain. Therefore, it is difficult to give confident advice on whether to drink lots or just to drink normally when you have mild symptoms of cystitis. However, if you have a high temperature and/or feel unwell, having plenty to drink helps to prevent having a lack of fluid in your body (dehydration).

What is the outlook?

Most people improve within a few days of starting treatment. See a doctor if you do not quickly improve. If your symptoms do not improve despite taking an antibiotic medicine then you may need an alternative antibiotic. This is because some bacteria are resistant to some types of antibiotics. This can be identified from tests done on your urine sample.

Can I prevent urine infections?

Unfortunately, there are few proven ways to prevent urine infections. No evidence has been found for traditional advice given, such as drinking cranberry juice or the way you wipe yourself.

There are some measures which may help in some cases:

• It makes sense to avoid constipation, by eating plenty of fibre (such as fruit) and drinking enough fluid.
• Older women with atrophic vaginitis may wish to consider hormone replacement creams or pessaries. These have been shown to help prevent urine infections.
• If there is an underlying medical problem, treatment for this may stop urine infections occurring.
• For some people with repeated urine infections, a low dose of antibiotic taken continuously may be prescribed.